Explore the impact of friendship in the West African epic. Who are the important sets of friends? What are admired traits in

Epic of Sundiata, pp. 3 – 58, Norton Anthology Volume C.

Assignment 8 – option 1: While you only need 1 paragraph, it must incorporate valid secondary research.

What to do:

You are to write no more than 2 paragraphs to answer the question. You can, if done correctly, complete this

assignment with one paragraph. Follow all the grammar, structure, etc. rules previously established

throughout the course.

The question to answer is as follows:

Explore the impact of friendship in the West African epic. Who are the important sets of

friends? What are admired traits in these friendships? Do friends help Sundiata to

accomplish his destiny, or hinder his accomplishment? How? Find at least three passages

from the text to develop and support your thesis.

Assignment 8 – option 2: While you only need 1 paragraph, it must incorporate valid secondary research.

What to do:

You are to write no more than 2 paragraphs to answer the question. You can, if done correctly, complete this

assignment with one paragraph. Follow all the grammar, structure, etc. rules that have been established

throughout the course.

The question to answer is as follows:

What role do women play? That is, should the women in the Epic of Sundiata be called heroes? If yes,

explain why. If no, explain why not.

In order to answer this question, you must first identify the role that a woman or multiple women play in the epic. After you identify the role, you must state your position: Is this a heroic role? Find at least three passages from the text to develop and support your thesis.

How to do it:

Write a double spaced, well-developed paragraph, which starts with your topic sentence,

which should directly answer the question above in a clear and concise manner. The rest of

your paragraph has three types of sentences: 3 Support Statements, 3 Citation Statements,

and 3 Explanation Statements and: The new section: 3 Quotes from Peer-Reviewed

Journal(s) to support your ideas. This means you need 3 separate quotes, from 3 separate

journal articles. You must use all 3 MLA-Quotation styles (I, II, III) (found on page 3, in the

right hand column, under the “NEVER USE S.A.Q. STAND ALONE QUOTES” heading of the MLA TipSheet

on Jenzabar). Traditionally, the best place to add a quote is AFTER each Explanation

Statement.

Commented [WLD1]: For example, many argue that the Epic of Gilgamesh presents no heroic women. However, some will say that the Temple Harlot is a hero because without her presence, without her action, without her guidance; Enkidu would never have met– and at least in an indirect manner, saved–Gilgamesh from his own avarice.

So why am I using this Gilgamesh character as an example ? This female character is usually ignored, if not downgraded denigrated, by reading audiences and scholars, who prefer viewing Gilgamesh as the hero. So, I use that example as a means of showing the following: Don’t get locked into a typical or a standard or a traditional definition or idea of who can be a hero.

The following questions may help get you started: Who are the women in the work? Of the women, on which one(s) do you want to focus? What is her role? Does that role influence Others? How so? On a scale of 1 to 10, is that influence important? How so?

Last but not least, your paragraph must end by summing up or Restating the main argument

you have been analyzing. To do this effectively, restate the Topic Sentence. You should use a

transition word at the beginning of this sentence as well.

When to do it:

The first draft is due by Friday, 11:55 pm via Coursework submission. You must attach a

Grammarly report with your submission! Your paper should reflect changes you made, based

on the grammarly report. I will grade (or evaluate, if it does not pass) your work and return it,

no later than the following Monday. If there is no grade, you can revise and re-submit by the

next class session.

Possible Topic Sentences: (You cannot use these verbatim. You can use the structure if you wish, but you must

generate your own sentence.) Otherwise, you are plagiarizing and will fail.

The heroic role of women in Sundiata’s world involves the displaying of critical insight, pivotal leadership, and

supernatural strengths.

Women have a significant impact on Sundiata’s life. In a negative light, women cause his troubles. However,

in a positive light, women cause his victories. All in all, the role women play is significant.

When one analyzes women’s positive and negative roles in Sundiata’s life, one sees that Maat permeates all

throughout the Epic of Sundiata.

When one analyzes Women’s positive and negative roles in Sundiata’s life, one sees that reveal Maat

permeates all throughout the Epic of Sundiata.

The role of women in Sundiata’s world involves the displaying of critical insight, pivotal leadership, and

supernatural strengths, thus making women heroic.

Women have no significant roles in the epic.

Usable Research:

(You can use any elements of the following quotations in your writing. You must, however, ensure that you

are following the correct MLA format when you use them. You are, at the same time, free to locate your

own researched articles to support your ideas.

• Sundiata's mother not only endures the long pregnancy and the insults of other women, but she

travels with Sundiata into exile, guiding and protecting him, and offering him crucial advice” (Mbele

63).

• … women are in dispensable as facilitators of the careers of the hero. Typically the hero

succeeds in African epics only because of the crucial assistance of a woman. (Mbele 88)

• . . . women as insightful and resourceful problem-solvers” (Mbele 62)

• It is the mastery of the supernatural that determines true heroism and distinguishes the hero from the

everyday common person. Moreover, the hero in those epics cannot rely solely on his human

capacities as he has to fight forces beyond the human realm. It is the hero's ability to perform actions

that he would not have otherwise been able to undertake if he were not endowed with superhuman

powers that distinguish him from any other person (Deme 412).

• It is undeniably clear from the above quotation that the hero of the African epic, contrary to what the

observer from elsewhere outside African culture may think, is not a mere puppet, manipulated by

outside forces, but a person who has complete control . . . (Deme 412).

• Dominant throughout the corpus is some form of extended, heroic struggle against adversity or

adversary, always, it seems, with the aid of a supernatural helper (often female) such as a genie, or

some form of mag- ical protection, and often with a "wilderness" or exile period, ranging from the

young Sunjata's time in Mema or Nema, to Mwindo's visit to the under- world (Bulman 39).

Extra Credit: 5 points added to your Mid-Term grade. PROPERLY Document 3 additional RELEVANT entries on the work

cited page WITH a corresponding permalink. That is, find 3 other articles from which to cite. Due Date: April 9th, 2021

by midnight, via Jenzabar.

—————————————————————————————————————————————

Works Cited

Bulman, Stephen. “African Epics.” African Studies Review, vol. 42, no. 3, 1999, pp. 34–40. JSTOR,

www.jstor.org/stable/525202. Accessed 25 Nov. 2020.

Deme, Mariam Konate. “Heroism and the Supernatural in the African Epic: Toward a Critical Analysis.” Journal

of Black Studies, vol. 39, no. 3, 2009, pp. 402–419. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40282569.

Accessed 25 Nov. 2020.

Mbele, Joseph L. “Women in the African Epic.” Research in African Literatures, vol. 37, no. 2, 2006,

pp. 61–67. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3821156. Accessed 25 Nov. 2020.

I

Encounters

with

Islam

h e Prop het Muhammed a nd the e me rgence of Isla m united d ispa ra te Ara b tribes over t h e co urse of the seventh century, t u rn ing

them into a pote nt cu ltura l a nd politica l fo rce. Is la m initia lly spread as t he re ligion of a dynamic Arab sta te that took advan tage of t he weakness of the Byzan t ine and Persian Empires in the Middle East, a nd soon extende d its politica l bo unda ries even further, to Spa in, Central Asia, a nd Afgh a ni- stan. Once conquests s lowed dow n and poli tica l boundari es were co nsolidated , tra ders carri ed t h e re ligion even fu rthe r, to W est Africa and Chi na, as well as Sou th a nd So uth east Asia . Arab traders es ta blishe d an increasingly for- Rung netwo rk of c it- ies and trading posts, faci li tating an extraordi nary exc ha nge of good s . In Cordoba, th e cen ter of Mus- Ji m Spa in , one had access to goods coming fro m De lhi , t he S ultanate in northern India, and from w hat is now Bu lgaria in easte rn Europe to S udan. Alo ng with comm odities, w hat traveled a lon g t h ese t rad e routes were a rmies . Is la m beca me the re li- gion of t he ruli ng c lasses in the diffe re nt e mpires. However, un like C hrist ianity, Is la m did n ot see k

A n illustrati on of the O t toman fleet blockading the port of' i l arsc ille , from a 16t h-centur y O u oman manuscri pt that reco unt s th e mi litary campaigns of Siiley m a n the Mag nifi cent.

r – WESTERN AFRICA

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converts, which meant that it often allowed local religious practices to exist alongside Islam, thus creating multicul- tural societies in which different reli- gions existed side by side. The Ottoman Empire and the Mughal rule in India, for all the tensions that existed between different groups, set a standard for reli- gious tolerance.

The same pattern held true of cul- ture. Far from seeking to export a homo- geneous notion of culture, the various Islamic empires were places of vibrant cultural exchange, in which art and ideas traveled as freely as goods and armies. Writing was especially enriched by the interchange; new literary forms that blended imported styles with existing local ones emerged throughout the Islamic world. Oral literature, such as the ones that fed into the Turkish epic Dede Karkut or the Mali epic Sunjata, continued to flourish, while incorporat- ing Islamic elements, much as the pre- Christian epic Beowulf had received a late Christian layer or veneer to make the traditional story compatible with the new dominant religion. The result was a fascinating encounter of cultures and religions, whose products are pre- sented here.

ISLAM AND PRE-ISLAMIC CULTURE IN NORTH AFRICA

Between 640 and 700 c.E., North Africa was occupied by Arab invaders seeking to expand the growing sphere of influence of an Arab world increas- ingly united by Islam. One far-reaching result of the Arab conquest was that it led to an economic revolution by com- bining the faltering economy of late Roman North Africa with the desert and savannah lands of West Africa into a vast commercial network that extended from the Atlantic to East Asia and from the equator throughout northern Europe. By the latter half of the eighth century,

INTRODUCTION 5

most of the native Berber peoples of the Maghreb (Northwest Africa) had been converted to Islam. Owing to increasingly dynamic market forces to the north of the desert and the spread of camel-herding in the desert itself, Mus- lim Berber merchants became engaged in the systematic development of trans- Saharan trade.

The ninth-century Arab occupation of southern Morocco gave rise to a string of oasis cities south of the High Atlas Mountains. These included the bustling market town of Sijilmasa, which became the northern counterpart of the com- mercial centers of Tadmekka and Awdaghust on the southern edge of the Sahara. By the end of the tenth century, the southern trading centers had been colonized by Muslim (mostly Berber) immigrants from the north. They were merchants eager to trade with the mar- kets of desert-edge kingdoms like Ghana, Takrur, and Gao, and especially to extract wealth from parts of the western Sudan described by Arab travelers as "the land of gold."

Thus, Islam arrived in West Africa via Muslim traders, and by 1068 the respected Arab geographer Al-Bakri was writing that there were significant Mus- lim populations occupying towns of the Mande peoples, which included the Maninka of the Upper Niger region who became founders of the Mali Empire in the thirteenth century.

But Islam was not only an economic force; it also reshaped the cultural landscape. By the thirteenth century Islam had become a common, though not universal, aspect of Mande cul- ture. Far from imposing onto North Africa, including the Mali Empire, its own conception of art, Islam was grad- ually integrated into Mande culture, with Mande bards (jeliw) assimilating elements of Islamic tradition. Some of the stories told by Muslim clerics and by pilgrims returning from Mecca were adapted to local narrative repertoires.

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A cont e mporar y photog raph o f the Gran d Mosqu e at Dje nne, Mali , whi c h was li rs t built in the thirt ee n th century.

The Prophet Muhammad a nd va rious c haracters from his life a nd times were borrowed by Mande bards a nd incor- porate d into the ir m ost importa nt o ra l traditions, incl uding the e pic S unjat:a, w hich te ll s the s tory o f the thirte enth- centu ry hero w ho is c re dite d with the founding of th e Mali Empire .

THE OTTOMAN EMP IRE

The beginnings of the Ottoman Em- pire can be traced to a small princ ipa l- ity estab lis he d aroun d 1300 c .E. by T urkoma n nomads in the little- controlled borderla nds of northwestern Asia Jilino r be twee n th e Byzantine E mpire a nd the fragments of the Selj uk E mpire . The "Ottoma n e n terp rise," na med afte r Osman Beg (d. proba bly 13 24) was initia ll y one of m a n y simila r petty princ ipa lities, but it m a naged , within a century a nd a ha lf, to e liminate its Isla mic compe tito rs in Asia M ino r a nd conquer mu c h of southeastern Eu – rope. T he conquest of the c ity of Con- s tantinople in 14 5 3 fina lly establis hed it

as t he inherit o r of the eastern Roman Empire. O ve r time , Ottoman conquests exte nd ed furth er into Europe, including Hungary, a nd today's Romania. By 15 17, the Ottomans a lso cont ro lled Syria, Egypt, and the I-J o ly C ities of Ara- bia. Despite t h is eastern expa ns ion, the Ottoma n Empi re re mained a Medite rra- nean rathe r than a n Asiatic power.

In t his process of e mpire building, the nomadi c o rigins soon faded away to fond memories preserve d in c hro ni- cles and he roic e pics, s uc h as th e Booh of Dede Kor/mt, whi le the re m ai ning nomads were marginalized as a social g rou p and used as a military rese rve. The new poli t ical and m ili ta ry e lite largely cons iste d of carefull y selected and highl y educated slaves of t he s ul- tan , thus concentrating t he a dminis- tration of the e mpire in the impe rial h o u sehold. A second pill a r of Ottoman power was a feuda l a rm y, whic h never developed into a la n ded a ristocracy (as feudal armies did t h roughout E urope ) that could hold its own agains t the ce n t ral powe r o f t he s u lta n. While the Ottoman Dynasty was et hnically Turk-

ish, and the administrative language was Turkish as well, this elite was mostly recruited from Christian sub- jects, who were converted to Islam and culturally socialized into Ottoman- Turkish elite culture.

This elite culture found its classical expression in art, architecture, and lit- erature between the late fifteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth cen- tury. Ottoman literature used a lan- guage that is Turkish in principle, but had come to incorporate so many Ara- bic and Persian words, phrases, and even syntactic constructions that it is sometimes difficult to tell whether a poem is Turkish or Persian. This liter- ary Ottoman Turkish was worlds apart from the Turkish spoken on the street, the reserve of its erudite connoisseurs, who were all expected to be fluent in the "Three Languages"-Arabic, Persian, and Turkish-and their rich literary tra- ditions. Evliya Qelebi's Book of Travels is a powerful late homage to these ideals of classical Ottoman culture.

Strictly speaking, the term Ottoman should be used only for the members of the imperial household and every- body else who shared this culturally defined identity, but more generally it has come to include the numerous subcultures that were allowed to thrive alongside it. Within this multilingual and multi-religious empire, place and social status, as well as affiliation with religious and social institutions were more important than ethnic background or language. Lacking a concept of "Otto- man citizenship," the Ottoman state with its small elite had neither an interest nor the means to impose any kind of cultural or religious identity on its subjects, and did not interfere in the internal communal affairs of its populations. This policy has often been praised as Ottoman tolerance, but it is important to realize that tolerance did not mean equality: different religious groups were taxed differently and did

INTRODUCTION 9

not have the same access to power. Yet the sheer diversity of the Ottoman Empire continues to command respect and elicit fascination.

ISLAM AND HINDUISM IN SOUTH ASIA

Muslim armies from Iraq entered South Asia early in the eighth century, initially conquering what are now the southern and western regions of Paki- stan. Over the next three hundred years or so, immigrants from various parts of the Muslim world, together with local converts to Islam, gradually established distinctive settlements for themselves in the western and north- western parts of the Indian subconti- nent, from Sind and Gujarat to Punjab and Kashmir. During the eleventh and twelfth centuries, Muslim armies from Afghanistan and Central Asia ( which included Turkish slave-warriors) car- ried out a succession of raids, or short- lived invasions, on towns and cities in northern India. In 1206, a Turkish slave-warrior proclaimed himself the Sultan of Delhi, laying the foundation for a Muslim empire in northern India that lasted more than three centuries, and was ruled by five different dynasties of Turkish-Afghan descent.

In the early sixteenth century, the Delhi Sultanate, which controlled the greater portion of western, northern, eastern, and central India by then, lost power to the Mughals, a dynasty with origins in today's Uzbekistan. The Mughals ruled most of South Asia from 1526 to 18 5 7, creating a vast empire that, especially in the second half of the sixteenth century and in the seven- teenth century, was the richest and most powerful political formation in Asia. Over a period of more than six centuries, the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal empire, between them, provided a com- plex framework for the emergence of a

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unique Indo-Islamic civilization, which continues to shape the cultural life of South Asia to this day.

Before the arrival of Islam, the Indian i; sribcontinent was predominantly Hindu ~ . in religion· and culture, with 6uddhism

'.J·:i, ·aru:f .~Jainism practiced only ·by·~.-~~aU . ·J.;/,:pip?i:4ties_.._pf the population. For mu'eh i

of.'tlie firsf millennium of the Common Era, Hinduism in its classical form involved polytheism (belief in the exis- tence of many gods), worship in temples officiated by priests (belonging to the Brahmin caste), the worship of idols and the performance of numerous and intri- cate rituals (in accordance with elaborate scriptures, l~w books, and codes), and pilgrimages to designated holy plac:es.

When Islam settled into South Asia, it challenged many of these ideas and practices in Hinduism. Islam's uncom- promising monotheism (belief in a sin- gle, all-powerful God), as well as its

INTRODUCTION I . 11

attacks on idol-worship, compelle~.- many Hindus to reconsider their poly- · theism and their worship in temples ( which is centered around icf 9.ls, 'often representing gods in anthropomorphi~, – forms). Likewise, Islam's emphasis on .. SO(}ial. e,quality and a universal fraternity ·· persu~dea J-lindus to question the caste . hierarchyind its practice of discrimina- tion on the basis of birth. Moreover, Sufism-a mystical form of Islam cen- tered on the cultivation of music, dance, poetry, the visual arts, and techniques of ecstasy-offered forms of spiritualism that resonated with some Hindu con- ceptions of "union with God." The poets collected here, from different regions and religions of South Asia, all work through this productive tension between Islam and Hinduism, testifying to the fact that cross-cultural encounters are sometimes violent, but can also lead to artworks of stunning beauty.

~~ ·–

~SUNJATA: A WEST AFRICAN EPIC OF THE

:~~atethyirte~~t~~~l;_;~i~:th cent;r;-p~~t ~~} ~ ?1}U .,.. HJ· l7 ~ ,,(-&"'

74~he West African epic named after one generation of jeliw to the next, i1 its central hero, Sunjata, is an essen- and the principal Mande clans frame

tial part of Mande culture. The heartland their identities in terms of descent of Mande territory is located in what is from the ancestors describe~jn epic now northeastern Guinea and southern tradition. · Mali, but the Mande peoples are found As specialists in maintaining the oral throughout a much larger portion of traditions of their culture, jeliw are sub-Saharan West Africa, speaking known to their people as guardians of various related languages and dialects. "The Word." In early times they served The Mande, also known as "the people as the spokespersons of chiefs (dugu- of Manden," who include the Bamana of tigiw) and kings (mansaw), and were Mali and the Maninka of Guinea, are thus responsible for their patrons' rep- heirs to a vibrant historical legacy, the utations in the community. Genera- high point of which was the Mali Empire tions of jeli families were permanently that flourished from the mid-thirteenth attached to leading households-. and to the early fifteenth century. The epic ruling dynasties, who supported the narrative of Sunjata and his contempo- bards in exchange for their services in raries illustrates the Mande peoples' own the verbal arts. The ieliw encouraged, view of this glorious past both before and their patrons to strive for ambitious after Islam began to influence their cul- goaJs by remmdmg them of the exam- ture, and it rightfully credits their ances- pies. set by their heroic ancestors, as tors with establishing one of the great described in the epic narratives.~ empires of the medieval world. ointed out mistakes through the use of

In Mande culture, oral tradition is prm·erbs, and admonis e t eir patrons the domain of bards popularly known _. then they seemed likely to tail in their as griots, but as jeliw or jelilu (sing. dut1<;_S. At the same fame, the bards' own jeli) to their own people. They are the security depended on their rulers' politi- heredita oral artists responsible for cal power and social prestige, so the sto- relating the —- ee s o t e ear y ries they told tended to be biased in ancestors, Reepmg them and the1r • favor of their patrons' own ancestors. exploits a

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